By Ari Darmapala

It is a mistaken belief that playing chess is a god-gifted art and barring reaching an ordinary ‘cognizable standard’ you cannot improve. The ‘cognizable standard’ means you are reaching to the standard which makes you only recognize the good and bad points of the game but without any ability to develop your game accordingly. No doubt, it is a game of superior intelligence. The alertness of the mind, capacity to contemplate on and select the right future are some basic requirements of this brainy game. Of course, you cannot cultivate talent only with the help of your labor but if you have a little of it you can surely bone it. Do not forget the age-old maxim that genius is five percents inspiration and ninety-nine percents perspiration. Moreover, hardly any human being is totally devoid of the element of talent. Only when we fail to perspire for making it develop that we lag behind the others who do. This is what we purpose to do with this article.

There are times when in the absence of the right kind of guidance our talents wither. Since they don’t know how to properly irrigate and fertilize this plant of talent, this get withered away. Remember that like any other discipline, chess also needs your unwaivering devotion. The young boys normally don’t know how to utilize their free time, especially those who have the potentials. Follow the guidelines given ahead and become a good chess player.

1. Read Chess-books and Magazines

After playing some games, read the book carefully. Play more games and the read the book. Each time you absorb some points that seemed previously obscure or did not grip you.

The way you improve most is not by playing opponents, but by playing over well-annotated games. Cover one side’s move usually the winner’s) and think out of each move before looking.

If you are eager to improve your play rapidly, write down the moves of all your games, not only the competitive one (in which recording is compulsory). It is best to write them in chess scorebooks, as loose score-sheets are easily lost. Afterwards, play each game and jot down critical comments. This how the grandmaster developed his skill in chess and became proficient in a short time without any coaching. It is surprising how much the game became clearer when you see every position a second time, in the light of what happened first time. You become your own tutor. If, after writing your comments you submit some of your games and your comments to a competent coach or top player for assessment for a suitable fee will improve more rapidly still.

Reading chess books by standard authors will also help. Try to follow the notations in a particular style. In case you get hold of those old books in which the notations are not in algebraic form, try to convert it in that form. Even this conversion exercise would give you a good peep inside the intricacies of the game. Write them down in a separate exercise book and the same way you do to develop you ability, say in Mathematics. This is very enlightening exercise. Just keep a small chess board with pieces alongside and convert descriptive notations into Algebraic notations. It is necessary because the algebraic notation was devised only a couple years ago while the earlier chess-books where only written in descriptive style. Remember that it is not a time consuming and boring exercise but a very rewarding one.

Besides doing this read some good magazines or newspapers having chess columns. Nowadays there is hardly any good journal or newspaper not having chess columns. Read those problems and solve them. Your intention while solving them should be to prove the given solution to be wrong! The idea is that you should independently try to attack the problem. In the process if you happen to hit some different solution deem it that you are on the right path of progress in your chess studies. You may join a club having the facility of chess. You might develop you chess skill in the company of the other learners.

Of course, you can enjoy chess without worrying about improvements. However, this is a natural tendency of an awakened mind to improve one’s performance in any sphere. By following the methods recommended here, almost anybody can become a strong player in a fraction of time normally taken.

Doctor Emanual Lasker (World Champion 1897-1921) considered that given a logical approach, a person of average talent would not need to give chess more than 200 hours to reach a stage where a master player who conceded him or her handicap would surely lose.

Lasker’s 200 hours was an underestimate, no doubt, but certain it is that most players could reach in months a standard that usually takes them years to attain.

Some newspapers publish regular chess columns in which composed chess problems are a feature. In a problem, an artificial position is setup and a solver is required to find a way to check mate in a specified number of moves, usually 2 or 3, no matter what replies the defender makes. In these, for the sake of uniformity, White always makes the first (key) move. In 2-move problems, only the key move is required. In 3-move problems, the second moves are required for correct solutions. As the composer’s purpose is to make the task difficult, the key move is usually on that would be unlikely to occur to a player in an actual game, and is never capture (except of a Pawn) and never a check.

2. Play Handicap Chess with Senior Players

The often given advice to play against stronger players has two distinct drawbacks. Firstly, it is discouraging if you invariably lose. Secondly, it is painful boring for the opponent if the different in skill is great. The strong player would be too polite to tell you this, but will find some excuse to stop playing. To fore stat this, ask the opponent to give you a handicap (give you odds in the chess parlance) e.g. to remove a Knight, a Rook, a Rook plus Knight, or even the Queen. Once the right odds found, both players can have exciting game. When removing a Knight or a Rook as a handicap, convention decrees that it shall be the one on the Queen’s wing.

Another kind of handicap is possible with the use of chess clocks. The expert can play with a very short time limit, his opponents at a much greater one. If the difference in skill is not too wide, this sort of handicap is better, as there is no alteration of the starting position. If the difference in skill is very great, it is a good idea to use both systems.

For single games, you cannot use a time handicap unless you have chess clocks. However, in simultaneous exhibitions, a time handicap operates automatically.

Here the expert opposes a large number of players seated in a circle or rectangle, each with a board and pieces in front of him or her. The expert steps from board to board, making a move at each one. Obviously, the expert can take only a fraction of time that opponents take, as the master may have to make 10,20,30,40 or more moves in the time that each opponent has for one move.

Simultaneous exhibitions have provided, from time immemorial, an excellent opportunity for a large number of players to oppose a master under conditions that give the amateurs some chance of bringing off a draw or even a win.

3. Have chess software

Playing chess against a well-programmed computer also helps in your developing chess-skill.

It was inevitable in our age of electronics that chess would engage the attention of computer engineers.

The real revolution in computer chess was brought about by the introduction of portable, relatively inexpensive microcomputers. These have been steadily improving and the latest models feature up to sixty-four levels of play, programmed openings and games, a voice announcing moves, and sensitized squares to eliminate the need for a keyboard. Most can play a reasonable game, while the more advanced models complete successfully in open tournaments.

As hinted before, microcomputers are most useful to players who have a problem in finding an opponent. Teaching level with programmed opening variations and suggested best moves are provided to help the students.

For top players computers provide a convenient way of storing information on openings and end games. Most top players use personal computer for this purpose.

4. General Advice

You should start playing preferably with another beginner, as soon as you have learned the moves. Do not be discouraged if you are slow in remembering the rules. With a little practice, you will get accustomed to the moves of the pieces and will be able to start working things out without trying to remember how each one move and capture.

Chess is competitive and a desire to win is its strongest motivation. This is why you should play with another beginner whom you have a chance to defeating. It is better if you have an instructor who can supervise the game to make you sure that the rules are observed and to point out where you went wrong after the game.

Textbook dealing with all aspects of the game in one volume, vary in scope and price. Some chess manuals are written by champions, others by chess teachers – they all help the beginner to delve deeper into the mysteries of chess. Later the person wishing to improve skills further more can specialize by studying various aspects of the game and here there is a vast choice of aids.

Books dealing with openings range from comprehensive manuals in several large volumes, not recommended for beginners, to books designed to explain the reasons why the openings are played in a certain way.

The Middle game is dealt with by explaining the basic strategic principles and by giving examples of tactical combinations. There are many books dealing with this subject.

The end game is part of the game, which all aspiring players should study. Here again there is a choice of many books. Best for beginners are elementary books, which explain basic principles that are most likely to occur in practical way. For advanced players there are books, which deal with specific ending in depth. Finally, we come to collection of games of great players. We recommend the books with detailed comments, especially those designed for beginners.

The young learners are advice not to rely heavily on chess problems to acquire mastery in this game. These problems are as removed from as crossword puzzles are from literature. Surely, they bone one’s power of visualization of the moves. Play as many actual games as possible and solve chess problem to keep your mind alert in the chess-sense. Remember in chess (the actual game) the object of the game is to defeat the opponent, the means by which this end is achieve or the time is takes, being unimportant. In problems, however, the opponent represents by time. Mate must be effect with in the stipulated number of moves. Since the position given in the problems is frequently quizotic, most of the seasoned chess players dismiss then as situation unworthy of consideration. On the other hand, the problemists maintain that game involves too much laborious and profitless wood shifting, and that the artistry of fifty games can be compound into a single artificial position. Nevertheless, the best courses open for young learners to have the judicious mixture of the two.

The author is the site admin of Chess Learning. If you want to read and learn more about the game of chess, check out http://www.chess-learning.com

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by Michael David Wojcio

Since 1978 Michael has been teaching chess to slow learners, average, and above-average (gifted) students. in about 20 schools. Presently. he is teaching the Royal Game to sow learners at the Daron School in Livingston. N.J. and in four elementary schools, in Short Hills and Summit, in after-school programs.

In 1982, I started a summer school chess program at the Glenwood Elementary School in Short Hills. There are about 50 children who attend the chess classes every year. For the last seven years, I have directed an annual children’s chess tournament in Short Hills. This year we had 54 participants in four sections.

It is important that teachers realize:

1) That chess is not difficult to learn, and

2) That there are so many advantages for the students.

The fact that chess is easy to learn is shown by the USCF publications Pawn & Queen and in Between and School Mates, many videos, pamphlets, and good books of instruction. A few good instructional books are listed at the end of this article.

International Master Jeremy Silman is right on target when he states that chess improves concentration, visualization, and memory. There is also a plethora of valuable ramifications enhanced by learning chess, and, in point of fact — it’s fun!

In special education, the game for the slow learner means:

1) Remembering the light square is on the right setting up the board, the names of the pieces, and becoming familiar with piece movement, the rules, and the concept of checkmate.

2) Sequencing — putting the pieces on the correct squares at the beginning of the game.

3) fine motor skills — moving the pieces in a straight line — vertical, horizontal, diagonal, and

L-shaped moves to the other color.

4) “Basic” strategy, controlling the center, moving one’s army out in the opening, so that no knights or bishops remain “sleeping” on the back rank, and.

5) Thinking first, then moving.

Later, simple tactics and the en passant rule can be taught to some special education students.Tactics are short term plans, and strategy is the overall plan. Even if a slow learner does not grasp all of this, he she can still benefit by learning language, concepts, and fine motor movement.

Teaching the game to the average, above average, and gifted student, means all of this at a faster pace, plus more involved strategy and tactics.

Chess is an art, a science, and a sport. Chess has this and even more value for students.

Chess is more than a game, since the teacher can transfer many aspects of this motivational

tool to other important subjects.

The above is just a part of article. Read the rest of it from http://www.njoychess.com/Education/wojcio.pdf

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Although the famous Man Versus Machine matches of Garry Kasparov against IBM’s Deep Blue supercomputer and the upcoming match of Vladimir Kramnik against Deep Fritz coming November 25, 2006 get the media attention, this article is more about how computers have helped people play better chess.

You can find articles on how to beat chess playing computers. Personally, unless you’re a famous chess star playing a famous chess computer for lots of money, I don’t see the point. I don’t want to beat computers — I want to beat people.

For example, one tip for playing computers is to open with a highly unusual move. Computers know all the common openings and if you open with Your Own Silly Unorthodox Suboptimal Invented opening instead of Ruy Lopez or the Caro-Kann, it’s forced to use up processing time to calculate the optimum response instead of saving that for the mid-game.

But if you want to use the Sicilian Defense or The Queen’s Gambit Accepted when you play a real person, then why practice something you made up just to trick the computer? What use is it in a real game or tournament?

Of course, if you’ve discovered a brand new super-opening and want to test it out against a computer, then more power to you.

Fortunately, computers can help you do that, and analyze the game at any point.

1. As a training tool.

2. As a resource to make it easier to learn from past games

3. To analyze the game

4. To practice and play with when no person is available.

There’re a wide range of chess computers and software you can buy. And these functions overlap, of course. The same computer you play when you have nobody else to play with can also teach you what you’re doing wrong.

1. If you’re a beginner or novice then of course a good chess computer or software program can help you. They’ll play against you and point out your errors.

You need to learn the basics. That includes learning from the best books, playing other people and playing with a computer that provides good feedback.

If you’re already a grandmaster, you don’t need me to tell you that you need computers to support your strategies against your opponents, not to teach you.

In Mortal Games: The Turbulent Genius of Garry Kasparov, Fred Waitzkin relates how part of Garry Kasparov’s team during the world championship tournament of 1990 against Anatoly Karpov was a database of past chess plays and someone who constantly scrolled through to research them.

If Karpov opened a game with the Zaitsev, then that night they would research that opening on the assumption (possibly false) that he would open with it again. And of course he and his team thoroughly researched his King’s Indian defense.

Naturally, computers have been used to analyze chess theory and positions. Although chess is too complicated for them to have yet to come out with a totally optimum start to finish guide (the way they have come up with a Basic Strategy for blackjack), they have analysed the end game. Chess computers have databases of all 3, 4 and 5 piece endgames.

Chess computers include: Excalibur, Novag and Saitek.

There’re three types of chess computers: hand-helds, portable chess computers and desk-top chess computers.

Chess software includes Shredder and Fritz.

by Richard Stooker

c 2006 by Richard Stooker
Read more about the world’s greatest game at Richard’s Play Chess Online blog

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Chess has long been recognized throughout the world as a builder of strong intellects, but only recently has the United States begun to recognize chess’s ability to improve the cognitive abilities, rational thinking and reasoning of even the least promising children. Chess brings out latent abilities that have not been reached by traditional educational means. It promotes logical thinking, instills a sense of self‑confidence and self‑worth, and improves communication and pattern recognition skills. It teaches the values of hard work, concentration, objectivity, and commitment. As former World Chess Champion Emmanuel Lasker said, “On the chessboard lies and hypocrisy do not survive long.”

In Marina, CA, an experiment with chess indicated that after only 20 days of instruction, students’ academic performance improved dramatically. George L Stephenson, chairman of the Marina JHS math department, reported that 55% of students showed significant improvement in academic performance after this brief smattering of chess instruction.

Similarly, a 5‑year study of 7th and 8th graders by Robert Ferguson of the Bradford, PA School District showed that test scores improved 173% for students regularly engaged in chess classes, compared with only 4.56% for children participating in other forms of “enrichment activities” including Future Problem Solving, Dungeons and Dragons, Problem Solving with Computers, independent study, and creative writing. A Watson‑Glaser Thinking Appraisal evaluation showed overwhelmingly that chess improved critical thinking skills more than the other methods of enrichment.

Educators at the Roberto Clemente School (C.I.S. 166) in New York report that chess has improved not only academic scores, but social performance as well. In 1988, Joyce Brown, an assistant principal and supervisor of the school’s Special Education department, and teacher Florence Mirin began studying the effect of chess on their Special Education students. When the study began, they had 15 children enrolled in chess classes; two years later they had 398‑

“The effects have been remarkable,” Brown says. “Not only have the reading and math skills of these children soared, their ability to socialize has increased substantially, too. Our studies have shown that incidents of suspension. and outside altercations have decreased by at least 60% since these children became interested in chess.”

Jo Bruno, Principal, P.S. 189, ‑Brooklyn, NY:. “In‑chess tournaments the child gets the opportunity of seeing more variety and diversity. There are kids who have more money than they have, but chess is a common denominator. They are all equal on the chessboard. I believe it is connected academically and to the intellectual development of children. I see them able to attend to something for more than an hour and a half. I am stunned. Some of them could not attend to things for more than 20 minutes.”

Jerome Fishman, Guidance Counselor, C.J.H.S 231, Queens, NY: “I like the aspect of socialization. You get into friendly, competitive activity where no one gets hurt. Instead of two bodies slamming into each other like in football, you’ve got the meeting of two minds. It’s strategic, and you use logic to plan an attack scheme. Aside from being good for the cognitive development of these youngsters, chess develops their social skills, too. It makes them feel they belong. Whenever we get a child transferred from another school who may have maladaptive behavior, our principal (Dr. Wilton Anderson) suggests chess as a way of helping him find his niche. It also helps kids learn how to be better friends. They analyze the game and talk it over afterwards. I even had a couple of kids who never had much in common start going to each other’s houses to play chess and swap Chess Life magazines. We’ve got kids literally lining up in front of the school at 6:45 am to get a little chess in before classes start.”

Source for most of the above: New York City Schools Chess Program by Christine Palm, copyright 1990

source: ChessHouse

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The game of chess makes one of the most important contributions to the field of education. Inherent in it are the basic principles of psychological learning theory:  Memory, Pattern Recognition, Decisionmaking, and Reinforcement.  All of these variables interact during a game of chess and produce the results of the human thought process: a win or a loss.  Chess is a closed system.  The number of possible moves and variations is finite, although this number is extremely large.  Because of its being a closed system, the game can be analyzed and organized for study, just like music, or calculus, or a foreign language.  Once the player has incorporated the rule schema (system of rules) for chess, everything he learns about the opening, middle‑game, and endgame is based upon this rule system. If a player’s understanding of the rule schema is of a high level, then it is very likely that his learning progress will be very rapid.  With the aforementioned as an introduction, I would like to discuss the contribution which chess does indeed make to education and learning.

During my two years of psychological research in chess, I have discovered certain facts about the game which relate to human cognitive processes:

Memory Improvement
Chess has done wonders for people in this area. Players of all levels have admitted that their general memory has significantly improved as a result of over-the-board play and home analysis. The nature of the game is such that the visual aspects of the game (positional configurations, anticipated piece movements, diagonals, ranks, files, etc.) make deep impressions on that area of the mind which is responsible for memory. Visual stimuli tend to improve memory more than any other stimuli; thus, chess serves well in this area. It should also be noted that recall is also improved. Many of my subjects have claimed that they can now recall in detail events which would have been obscure to them before they had taken up the game seriously.  It would seem, then, chess is definitely an excellent memory exerciser the effects of which are transferable to other subjects where memory is necessary.

Logic
I do not believe that anyone is born with a superior faculty for logic. I believe that logic is created and developed as a result of other psychological contingencies related to human learning. The kind of logic employed in chess is based largely upon the rule schema, but not entirely. The element of “player psychology” enters the picture and sometimes creates its own logic. Player “A” may choose a move not because it is most logical, but because he believes that player “B” will not see the reason behind it. Yet many of the players I have interviewed have asserted that chess either sharpened or created a unique sense of logic which they have applied to other aspects of life successfully. They feel that they make fewer mistakes where decision-making is concerned either in chess or out of it.

Observation and Analysis
By observation I mean awareness.  Chess has the unique ability of teaching the player to become aware of details and the nuances of every position. The player learns to observe the whole board and recognize both the important and unimportant aspects of the position.  In short, the player is conditioned to observe and become aware. The effects of this conditioning are transferable. The college student, for example, who plays chess, may now find that when he studies for a test, he can separate the important from the unimportant facts; he also tends to notice and consider the small details of the material he is reading. He has learned to observe, and this is crucial. In the area of analysis the chess player is required to make mental calculations based upon the observed position and his knowledge of the rules. He learns to “see” deeply into position the possible tactical moves which may result in an advantage for him. He then calculates, always being guided by the rule schema. Many of my subjects who are either college or high school students have said that they can analyze and set up problems much better than before they studied chess. They admit  (at least some of them, anyway) that they are better able to solve math problems by transferring the same kind of methodology used in chess.

Operant Conditioning
This is by far the most important aspect of chess which directly relates to human learning.  In human psychology operant conditioning involves the learner actually doing, observing and responding to the stimuli presented to him.  In chess the same holds true.  The player makes moves based on his knowledge of the rules, his analysis and observations and above all, his judgment. After his opponent’s reply, he sees the results of his thought process.  From this experience he learns.  He learns from operating on what he has analyzed.  In a way chess is more complete than most college studies.  In many subjects the learner never gets a chance to operate on what he observes and analyzes. Thus, learning is incomplete and the learner gets turned off to further learning.  In psychology parlance, he becomes negatively reinforced.  In chess, however, the learner receives positive reinforcement. He obtains immediate knowledge of the results (the KR contingency).

Chess is a marvelous game, whether it be science or art, which should be instituted in schools and colleges throughout this country as it is in other countries. Its benefits to education are evident.  In my two interviews, one with Dutch grandmaster Jan Timman, and the other with Bent Larsen, both told me about the success of chess in the elementary and secondary schools of their respective countries. Timman said, “The future for chess in the schools is getting better and better.  There are now special teachers for chess who give instruction to children.” And Larsen commented, “In ordinary school in the ninth and tenth grades, students can select chess as a school activity… what you hear about school chess in Denmark comes from an organization outside the Danish Chess Federation.  It organizes a lot of chess in schools after school hours.  This is increasing in popularity.”  I sincerely hope that chess instruction, lectures, praxis, etc. can find its way into the college curriculum on a steady basis.  In the Soviet Union, for instance, at the Institute for Physical Culture and Sport, a student, usually in the master category, can major in chess! In fact, I think it was Anatoly Karpov who wrote his Bachelor’s thesis on the games of Bobby Fischer.  To conclude, I would like to quote that talented Soviet GM and chess teacher, Alexander Kotov. “It is not difficult to combine a very strong attraction to chess with work and study.  My own experience was that not only did chess not hinder my studies at school and in college, but even proved to be helpful as it played a part in development habits of logical thought.”

John Artise:  I am 27 years old and have a B.S. Degree in the German & Russian languages. I also hold a M.A. degree in Linguistics. I am presently teaching English to foreign students. I speak 3 other languages besides Russian and German: Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese. I became interested in chess 4 years ago when I closely followed Bobby Fischer’s rise to the top. In 1972 I undertook the task of designing s series of psychometric tests to administer to chess players in order to characterize certain aspects of their ability. This all stemmed from my keen interest in learning theory and teaching methods. The psychology of human cognitive processes became a pleasant preoccupation which I brought from my experience in language teaching to chess.  I also conduct interviews for publication with famous chess personalities. Jan Timman, Bent Larsen, and Ruth Cardoso have among them.  I am planning to develop a chess teaching‑machine based on operant conditioning contingencies.  I am currently doing research in ability of women in chess.

by John Artise

source: ChessHouse

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Chess is variously described as a science, an art and a sport. It has the virtue of being completely free of the element of luck: the result of each game depends entirely upon the skill of the players. A youngster who plays chess soon learns that he or she cannot blame failure on anyone else. Results are completely due to a child’s own abilities and efforts and a child must take responsibility for his or her own actions. Victory is earned and can be savored as a personal accomplishment.

A youngster taking part in a chess program develops critical thinking; logic, reasoning and problem solving abilities; memory, concentration and visualization skills; confidence; patience; determination; poise; self‑expression; and good sportsmanship. And perhaps more importantly, children who participate in the program improve their self‑esteem.

Everyone associates a good chess player with a good mind. A child who can play a good game of chess has proof of his or her mental abilities‑ and no one can take that away! When an inner‑city youngster succeeds in intellectual competition, defeating his or her opponents, he or she begins to believe in him or herself.

Research Report‑Chess and reading:

In 1991, with funding from the IBM Corporation, we commissioned a study conducted by a leading educational psychologist looking at the effect learning and playing chess had on reading scores of children in the Chess‑in‑the‑Schools program in New York City Community School District 9. Located in an economically disadvantaged neighborhood, Community School District 9 students have historically scored the lowest in reading and math of all 32 New York City school districts. The findings were significant. Children in the Chess‑in‑the‑Schools program showed an average year‑to‑year gain of 5.37 percentile points against the national average. The gains were particularly impressive among children who started with low or average initial scores. Non‑chess playing control groups showed no gain.

The same educational psychologist, who conducted the 1991 study, has recently completed a similar study in six U.S. cities conducted over two years. In the current study, two classrooms were selected in each of five schools. Students were given instruction in chess and reasoning in one classroom in each school. Reading scores of chess players and control classroom students were approximately equal at the beginning of the school year. Students in the chess program obtained significantly higher reading scores at the end of the year. It should be noted that while students in the chess group took chess lessons, the control group had additional classroom instruction in basic education. The control group teacher was free to use the “chess period” any way he or she wanted, but the period was usually used for reading, math or social studies instruction. The control groups thus had a little more reading instruction than the chess groups. Even so, the chess groups did better on the reading post‑test. So the gains in the chess groups were particularly impressive.

source: ChessHouse

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According to Murray, Chess originated at the end of sixth century in India. The game was different then, elephants replacing the present day rooks and peasants replacing pawns. The “firzan” now known as the queen could only move diagonally one square at a time. Still, the basic elements of modern chess were present: the game was played on an eight by eight board with pieces and the sole goal being to checkmate the opposing king.

The game of chess has been dominated by Russians for nearly 70 years. With the exception of Bobby Fischer who won the world championship in 1972 and relinquished it in 1975 the past 11 world champions have been of Russian decent. Why are Russians the dominant figures in world chess?

Chess has been part of the curriculum for most Russian schools for over 40 years. Adolescents were encouraged to play chess at a very early age to increase their problem solving and reasoning skills. The gifted students were chosen and studied under the supervision of former world champion Mikhail Botvinnik.

Adrian de Groot, a psychologist in the 1960’s became very interested in the use of chess as an educational tool. He began studying the thinking behavior of chess players in Russia. In particular he observed that there was a significant difference approach between those who highly skilled and experienced in chess to those who were new to the game. Initially de Groot assumed that the Grandmaster’s superiority lay in their ability to organize well and to memorize concrete lines of play. What de Groot found was quite different: Grandmasters did not rely on superior memory skills. Grandmasters were not any better at recalling randomly placed pieces than novice chess players were. The Grandmaster however was able to take actual chess positions and in an astonishing 5 seconds recognize a complex chess configuration and decide on a successful move. How were the GM’s able to give accurate, well thought out evaluations in so little time? It seemed that GM’s (but not novices) were able to recognize familiar configurations, and associating them with appropriate moves and plans.

Recent research in the late seventies and early eighties in the US has confirmed these findings. Researchers concluded that meaningful knowledge is stored in memory in the form of networks and patterns, and these patterns provide the roots essential for recall. Thus the expert and GM players were able to remember and recognize chunks of information. In chess these chunks are visual representations in which particular configurations are recognized. These relate to and often cue prior successful responses or pattern responses. What is an involved long sequence of decision making of information for novices, is processed by experts in “one go”. It seems that other experts such as dancers, athletes and musicians operate mentally in much the same way. Responses are efficient and fast as understanding and experience are recognized and recalled in the essential structure of the activity. It seems that chess players develop complex but efficient structures for memory storage and management.

One of the essential goals of education is to teach children to think critically: students must learn to make reasoned judgments. Chess is an excellent tool to demonstrate the theme of critical thinking. During a game a player must formulate a plan of attack or defense.

The formulation of a plan entails that the player must not only reflect on how similar problems are solved (searching a database of previous knowledge) but also the player must perform a systematic checking of possible combinations of moves and then arrive at an evaluation of each line. The process is a mental exercise where pieces are envisioned to be moving from square to square and the player reflects on the characteristics of the position to finally produce a reasoned outcome (move). This is precisely the definition of critical thinking. Watson-Glaser appraised the value of chess as a learning tool and showed overwhelmingly “that chess improved critical thinking skills more than the other methods of enrichment.” Included in the study were future problem solving, problem solving with computers, independent study, creative writing and fantasy games like Dungeons & Dragons.

An important element of critical thinking in chess is the evaluation process where the strength of one’s position is assessed . Beginners who play chess (and early computer programs) place significant emphasis on material — reasoning that “the player with more material will win by sheer numbers”. If only chess was that simple. Material plays a central role in winning a chess game but many more ideas are needed for a useful evaluation of a position. More advanced players find a balance: included in their evaluation processes are the ideas of central control, pawn structure, material, space, maneuverability, king safety, initiative and development of pieces. The brain has internalized these values allowing the player to make a reasoned judgment of which particular themes are critical in evaluating his or her own position.

Mathematicians have estimated that there are approximately 10^50 possible unique games of chess playable. Thus chess will never become just a repetition of previously played moves. So how can a player possibly make a decision as to which plan to choose with so many possible choices? Even with complicated evaluative techniques, choosing the best plan can be very difficult. The chess player must often must rely on intuitition. The best chess players are often those who have an acute feel or intuition for which move is correct. This can be a useful tool in education. Intuition is generally undervalued in educational terms but can be a very useful tool in both problem solving and real life applications when the steps to solve a problem are not easily apparent.

Are there links between mathematics and chess? Chess players are often considered mathematically oriented and there are obvious similarities as chess is a game of problem solving, evaluation, critical thinking, intuition and planning — much like the study of mathematics. Studies have shown that students playing chess have increased problem solving skills over their peers. Researcher suggests that while students playing chess learn concepts through physical and visual stimuli and correlate these concepts to cognitive patterns, mathematics in the classroom usually involves only pure symbolic manipulation. Thus there seems to be some evidence to suggest that chess acts as a sort of link in connecting form (symbolic) with understanding (physical and visual).

In the early 80’s Faneuil Adams became president of the American Chess Foundation (ACF). Adams was convinced that chess was an excellent learning tool for the adolescent, especially the disadvantaged. The ACF embarked on the Chess in Schools Program which focused on New York’s Harlem School district. Initially the program was focused on improving math skills for adolescents through improved critical thinking and problem solving skills. This was achieved as “test scores improved by 17.3% for students regularly engaged in chess classes, compared with only 4.56% for children participating in other forms of enriched activities.”

Also noted was that many students social habits improved when playing chess. The game allows for students of dissimilar backgrounds to integrate with others. Many disadvantaged or special education students are becoming actively involved in chess programs as the value of chess as a social tool is further explored. Advocates of chess are hoping that some of New York’s gang related problems will be solved as children and students play chess in their spare time instead of becoming involved with gang related activities. Thus chess steers youth away from trouble by keeping them off the streets as well as being a useful learning tool.

Jerome Fishman, Guidance Counselor, Queens, NY says: “I like the aspect of socialization. You get into a friendly, competitive activity where no one gets hurt. Instead of two bodies slamming into each other like football, you have the meeting of two minds. Aside from developing cognitive skills, chess develops their social skills. It makes them feel they belong. Whenever we get a child transferred from another school who may have maladaptive behavior, we suggest chess as a way of helping him find his niche. The kids become better friends when after the game they analyze possible combinations … we have kids literally lining up in front of the school at 6:45am to get a little chess in before class.”

Principal Jo Bruno , Brooklyn, NY : “In chess tournaments the child gets the opportunity of seeing more variety and diversity. There are kids who have more money than they have, but chess is a common denominator. They are all equal on the chessboard. I believe it is connected academically and to the intellectual development of children. I see the kids able to attend to something for more than an hour and a half. I am stunned. Some of them could not attend to things for more than 20 minutes.” Bruno brings up the important point that chess can focus kids into concentrating on a task for long periods of time. Why is this? The author believes that many adolescents find chess fun and exciting. This corresponds to the youths playing (learning) for long periods of time without distraction.

Dr. Stuart Margulies, a researcher for IBM, stated that he “conclusively proved that students who learned chess enjoyed a significant increase in their reading ability”. Dr. Margulies does not explain why he believes there is a correlation between chess and increased reading skills but it is the author’s opinion that chess develops cognitive and attention skills. Furthermore, chess forces adolescents to visualize concepts and piece movement. This may allow for better visualization (interpretive) skills when reading.

Where is chess education headed? In the United States a major scholastic effort is underway to incorporate chess into the elementary school setting by the USCF, the US Chess Trust, the AFC and thousands of teachers and volunteers. The USCF scholastic magazine School Mates has over 20,000 copies in circulation each month. Rosalyn Katz of New Jersey spearheaded a movement for scholastic chess volunteers to change the legislation for teaching chess in schools in the state of New York. Katz managed to pass to bills in senate: Bill #S452 and #A1122. The bills read :

“An act concerning instruction in chess and supplementing Chapter 35 of Title 18A of the New Jersey Statutes. Be it enacted by the Senate and General Assembly of the State of New Jersey:

• 1) The Legislature finds and declares that:
  • a) chess increases strategic thinking skills, stimulates intellectual creativity, and improves problem-solving ability, while raising self-esteem;
  • b) when youngsters play chess they must call upon higher-order thinking skills, analyze actions and consequences, and visualize future possibilities;
  • c) in countries where chess is offered widely in schools, students exhibit excellence in the ability to recognize complex patterns and consequently excel in math and science; and
  • d) instruction in chess during the second grade will enable pupils to learn skills which will serve them throughout their lives.
• 2) Each board of education may offer instruction in chess during the second grade for pupils in gifted and talented and special education programs. The department of Education may establish guidelines to be used by boards of education which offer chess instruction in those programs.
• 3) This act shall be made effective immediately.

The Province of Quebec has followed suit and also has programs in place where schools teach chess at the elementary level. Instructors are often professional chess players hired by the school board to teach part-time during the week. British Columbia has no official legislation regarding chess as an active learning tool but the author believes that it is only a matter of time until a comprehensive uniform stance is taken by the province on chess in the classroom. At present chess is taught at few schools in Vancouver, mostly under volunteer supervision. Lynn Stringer currently volunteers many hours starting chess programs in many Vancouver Island schools. As pressure grows from parents interested in better educational programs the author expects chess programs will be introduced province-wide in the near future . This will result in a greater demand for qualified people with the necessary skills to teach chess.

Yasser Seirawan, US Grandmaster, said that, “Chess must no longer remain a civilized luxury of the leisure class in either appearance or fact; rather, chess must assume its fundamental role as a mental integrator and motivational activator. The hard scrabble nature of chess is equal to the task; are we equal to its full scholastic implementation?”

Bibliography

• Long, Eleanor (1991). Secrets of the Grandmaster. Australian- Mathematics Journal, 2, 24-27.
• Marjoram, D (1987). Chess and Gifted Children. Gifted Education- International, 5, n(1), 48-51.
• Palm, Christine (1994). Scholastics: Chess Improves Academic Performance. Northwest Chess, 10, 1, 3
• Seirawan, Yasser (1994). Scholastic Chess - Feel the Buzz? Inside Chess, 5, n(4), 3-4.According to Murray, Chess originated at the end of sixth century in India. The game was different then, elephants replacing the present day rooks and peasants replacing pawns. The “firzan” now known as the queen could only move diagonally one square at a time. Still, the basic elements of modern chess were present: the game was played on an eight by eight board with pieces and the sole goal being to checkmate the opposing king.The game of chess has been dominated by Russians for nearly 70 years. With the exception of Bobby Fischer who won the world championship in 1972 and relinquished it in 1975 the past 11 world champions have been of Russian decent. Why are Russians the dominant figures in world chess?

  Chess has been part of the curriculum for most Russian schools for over 40 years. Adolescents were encouraged to play chess at a very early age to increase their problem solving and reasoning skills. The gifted students were chosen and studied under the supervision of former world champion Mikhail Botvinnik.

  Adrian de Groot, a psychologist in the 1960’s became very interested in the use of chess as an educational tool. He began studying the thinking behavior of chess players in Russia. In particular he observed that there was a significant difference approach between those who highly skilled and experienced in chess to those who were new to the game. Initially de Groot assumed that the Grandmaster’s superiority lay in their ability to organize well and to memorize concrete lines of play. What de Groot found was quite different: Grandmasters did not rely on superior memory skills. Grandmasters were not any better at recalling randomly placed pieces than novice chess players were. The Grandmaster however was able to take actual chess positions and in an astonishing 5 seconds recognize a complex chess configuration and decide on a successful move. How were the GM’s able to give accurate, well thought out evaluations in so little time? It seemed that GM’s (but not novices) were able to recognize familiar configurations, and associating them with appropriate moves and plans.

  Recent research in the late seventies and early eighties in the US has confirmed these findings. Researchers concluded that meaningful knowledge is stored in memory in the form of networks and patterns, and these patterns provide the roots essential for recall. Thus the expert and GM players were able to remember and recognize chunks of information. In chess these chunks are visual representations in which particular configurations are recognized. These relate to and often cue prior successful responses or pattern responses. What is an involved long sequence of decision making of information for novices, is processed by experts in “one go”. It seems that other experts such as dancers, athletes and musicians operate mentally in much the same way. Responses are efficient and fast as understanding and experience are recognized and recalled in the essential structure of the activity. It seems that chess players develop complex but efficient structures for memory storage and management.

  One of the essential goals of education is to teach children to think critically: students must learn to make reasoned judgments. Chess is an excellent tool to demonstrate the theme of critical thinking. During a game a player must formulate a plan of attack or defense.

  The formulation of a plan entails that the player must not only reflect on how similar problems are solved (searching a database of previous knowledge) but also the player must perform a systematic checking of possible combinations of moves and then arrive at an evaluation of each line. The process is a mental exercise where pieces are envisioned to be moving from square to square and the player reflects on the characteristics of the position to finally produce a reasoned outcome (move). This is precisely the definition of critical thinking. Watson-Glaser appraised the value of chess as a learning tool and showed overwhelmingly “that chess improved critical thinking skills more than the other methods of enrichment.” Included in the study were future problem solving, problem solving with computers, independent study, creative writing and fantasy games like Dungeons & Dragons.

  An important element of critical thinking in chess is the evaluation process where the strength of one’s position is assessed . Beginners who play chess (and early computer programs) place significant emphasis on material — reasoning that “the player with more material will win by sheer numbers”. If only chess was that simple. Material plays a central role in winning a chess game but many more ideas are needed for a useful evaluation of a position. More advanced players find a balance: included in their evaluation processes are the ideas of central control, pawn structure, material, space, maneuverability, king safety, initiative and development of pieces. The brain has internalized these values allowing the player to make a reasoned judgment of which particular themes are critical in evaluating his or her own position.

  Mathematicians have estimated that there are approximately 10^50 possible unique games of chess playable. Thus chess will never become just a repetition of previously played moves. So how can a player possibly make a decision as to which plan to choose with so many possible choices? Even with complicated evaluative techniques, choosing the best plan can be very difficult. The chess player must often must rely on intuitition. The best chess players are often those who have an acute feel or intuition for which move is correct. This can be a useful tool in education. Intuition is generally undervalued in educational terms but can be a very useful tool in both problem solving and real life applications when the steps to solve a problem are not easily apparent.

  Are there links between mathematics and chess? Chess players are often considered mathematically oriented and there are obvious similarities as chess is a game of problem solving, evaluation, critical thinking, intuition and planning — much like the study of mathematics. Studies have shown that students playing chess have increased problem solving skills over their peers. Researcher suggests that while students playing chess learn concepts through physical and visual stimuli and correlate these concepts to cognitive patterns, mathematics in the classroom usually involves only pure symbolic manipulation. Thus there seems to be some evidence to suggest that chess acts as a sort of link in connecting form (symbolic) with understanding (physical and visual).

  In the early 80’s Faneuil Adams became president of the American Chess Foundation (ACF). Adams was convinced that chess was an excellent learning tool for the adolescent, especially the disadvantaged. The ACF embarked on the Chess in Schools Program which focused on New York’s Harlem School district. Initially the program was focused on improving math skills for adolescents through improved critical thinking and problem solving skills. This was achieved as “test scores improved by 17.3% for students regularly engaged in chess classes, compared with only 4.56% for children participating in other forms of enriched activities.”

  Also noted was that many students social habits improved when playing chess. The game allows for students of dissimilar backgrounds to integrate with others. Many disadvantaged or special education students are becoming actively involved in chess programs as the value of chess as a social tool is further explored. Advocates of chess are hoping that some of New York’s gang related problems will be solved as children and students play chess in their spare time instead of becoming involved with gang related activities. Thus chess steers youth away from trouble by keeping them off the streets as well as being a useful learning tool.

  Jerome Fishman, Guidance Counselor, Queens, NY says: “I like the aspect of socialization. You get into a friendly, competitive activity where no one gets hurt. Instead of two bodies slamming into each other like football, you have the meeting of two minds. Aside from developing cognitive skills, chess develops their social skills. It makes them feel they belong. Whenever we get a child transferred from another school who may have maladaptive behavior, we suggest chess as a way of helping him find his niche. The kids become better friends when after the game they analyze possible combinations … we have kids literally lining up in front of the school at 6:45am to get a little chess in before class.”

  Principal Jo Bruno , Brooklyn, NY : “In chess tournaments the child gets the opportunity of seeing more variety and diversity. There are kids who have more money than they have, but chess is a common denominator. They are all equal on the chessboard. I believe it is connected academically and to the intellectual development of children. I see the kids able to attend to something for more than an hour and a half. I am stunned. Some of them could not attend to things for more than 20 minutes.” Bruno brings up the important point that chess can focus kids into concentrating on a task for long periods of time. Why is this? The author believes that many adolescents find chess fun and exciting. This corresponds to the youths playing (learning) for long periods of time without distraction.

  Dr. Stuart Margulies, a researcher for IBM, stated that he “conclusively proved that students who learned chess enjoyed a significant increase in their reading ability”. Dr. Margulies does not explain why he believes there is a correlation between chess and increased reading skills but it is the author’s opinion that chess develops cognitive and attention skills. Furthermore, chess forces adolescents to visualize concepts and piece movement. This may allow for better visualization (interpretive) skills when reading.

  Where is chess education headed? In the United States a major scholastic effort is underway to incorporate chess into the elementary school setting by the USCF, the US Chess Trust, the AFC and thousands of teachers and volunteers. The USCF scholastic magazine School Mates has over 20,000 copies in circulation each month. Rosalyn Katz of New Jersey spearheaded a movement for scholastic chess volunteers to change the legislation for teaching chess in schools in the state of New York. Katz managed to pass to bills in senate: Bill #S452 and #A1122. The bills read :

  “An act concerning instruction in chess and supplementing Chapter 35 of Title 18A of the New Jersey Statutes. Be it enacted by the Senate and General Assembly of the State of New Jersey:

• 1) The Legislature finds and declares that:
  • a) chess increases strategic thinking skills, stimulates intellectual creativity, and improves problem-solving ability, while raising self-esteem;
  • b) when youngsters play chess they must call upon higher-order thinking skills, analyze actions and consequences, and visualize future possibilities;
  • c) in countries where chess is offered widely in schools, students exhibit excellence in the ability to recognize complex patterns and consequently excel in math and science; and
  • d) instruction in chess during the second grade will enable pupils to learn skills which will serve them throughout their lives.
• 2) Each board of education may offer instruction in chess during the second grade for pupils in gifted and talented and special education programs. The department of Education may establish guidelines to be used by boards of education which offer chess instruction in those programs.
• 3) This act shall be made effective immediately.

The Province of Quebec has followed suit and also has programs in place where schools teach chess at the elementary level. Instructors are often professional chess players hired by the school board to teach part-time during the week. British Columbia has no official legislation regarding chess as an active learning tool but the author believes that it is only a matter of time until a comprehensive uniform stance is taken by the province on chess in the classroom. At present chess is taught at few schools in Vancouver, mostly under volunteer supervision. Lynn Stringer currently volunteers many hours starting chess programs in many Vancouver Island schools. As pressure grows from parents interested in better educational programs the author expects chess programs will be introduced province-wide in the near future . This will result in a greater demand for qualified people with the necessary skills to teach chess.

Yasser Seirawan, US Grandmaster, said that, “Chess must no longer remain a civilized luxury of the leisure class in either appearance or fact; rather, chess must assume its fundamental role as a mental integrator and motivational activator. The hard scrabble nature of chess is equal to the task; are we equal to its full scholastic implementation?”

Bibliography

• Long, Eleanor (1991). Secrets of the Grandmaster. Australian- Mathematics Journal, 2, 24-27.
• Marjoram, D (1987). Chess and Gifted Children. Gifted Education- International, 5, n(1), 48-51.
• Palm, Christine (1994). Scholastics: Chess Improves Academic Performance. Northwest Chess, 10, 1, 3
• Seirawan, Yasser (1994). Scholastic Chess - Feel the Buzz? Inside Chess, 5, n(4), 3-4.

By Marcel Milat

source: ChessHouse

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